Theoretical foundation
Dewey
Vygotsky
Piaget
Bruner

Contributions
of later work
Papert
CTGV
Gardner

Characteristics

Criticisms

Criticisms of Constructivist Instruction

Criticism of constructivist methods. Despite the current popularity of constructivism, its principles and practices have stimulated a variety of criticisms.

1. It is difficult for teachers to certify individuals' skills learning. Reigeluth (1991) pointed out that, although constructivists deplore formal tests or objective measurements, schools must sometimes certify that students have learned key skills. "It is not sufficient to know that a doctor was on at team of medical students that performed the operation successfully; you want to know if the doctor can do it without the team". As calls for teacher accountability and adherence to standards in education grow ever louder, the problem of certifying learning is becoming a pivotal issue.

2. Prerequisite skills may be lacking. Constructivist strategies often call for students to approach and solve complex problems. But both Tobias (1991) and Melenda (1991) point out that, regardless of their motivation, many students may lack the prerequisite abilities that would allow them to handle this kind of problem solving.

3. Students may not choose the most effective instruction. Constructivist tasks often require students to learn how to teach themselves-that is, to choose methods by which they will learn and solve problems. But Tobias quotes a study that Clark (1982) that indicates that students often learn the least from instructional methods they prefer most. Critics of constructivism say that students often need "the sage on the stage" to guide them.

4. Not all topics suit constructivist methods. Many educators feel that constructivist methods serve some purposes more effectively than others. For example, constructivist activities frequently seek to teach the problem-solving methods used by experts in a content area (thinking like a historian), rather than to learn any specific content or skills such as historical facts. Molenda points out that constructivists may be surprised to learn that this is not what many parents and educators have in mind. "Parents and school people are much more interested in communicating our cultural heritage to the next generation. Facts are viewed ends in themselves". Tobias notes that constructivists often favor depth of coverage on one topic over breadth of coverage on many topics.

5. Skills may not transfer to practical situations. Constructivists feel that problem soling taught in authentic situations in school will transfer more easily to problems that students must solve in real life. Yet Tobias found little evidence from related research to indicate that such transfer will occur.