Technology
Integration
Strategies

Integration strategies
based on directed models

Integration strategies
based on constructivist models

Useful with
either models

Integration Strategies Based on Directed Models

Integration to remedy identified weaknesses. One premise of constructivist theorists is that students are motivated to learn prerequisite skills if they see their relevance when the need arises in the context of group or individual projects. However experienced teachers know that even the most motivated students do not always learn skills as expected. These failures occur for a variety of reasons, many of which are related to learners' internal capabilities and not all of which are thoroughly understood. Curriculum is currently moving toward allowing students to acquire skills on more flexible schedules. But when the absence of prerequisite skills presents a barrier to higher-level learning or to passing tests, directed instruction usually is the most efficient way of providing them. For example, if a student does not learn to read when it is developmentally appropriate, research has show great success in identifying and remedying specific weaknesses among the component skills. Materials such as drills and tutorials have proven to be valuable resources that help teachers provide this kind of individualized instruction. Well-designed resourced like these not only can give students effective instruction, but also are frequently more motivating and less threatening than teacher-delivered instruction to students who find learning difficult.

Integration to promote fluency or automaticity or prerequisite skills. Some kinds of prerequisite skills benefit students more if they can apply the skills without conscious effort. Gagne(1982) and Bloom(1986) referred to this as automaticity of skills, and Hasselbring and Goin (1993) call it fluency or proficiency. Students need rapid recall and performance of a wide range of skills throughout the curriculum, including simple math facts, grammar and usage rules, and spelling. Some students acquire automaticity through repeated use o the skills in practical situations. Others acquire this automatic recall more efficiently through isolated practice. Drill and practice, instructional game, and, sometimes, simulation courseware all provide ideal means of practice tailored to individual skill needs and learning pace.

Integration to make systematic learning efficient for highly motivated students. Current educational methods are sometimes criticized for failure to interest and motivate students because activities and skills are irrelevant to students' needs, experiences, and interests. However, some students' motivation to learn springs from internal rather than external sources. These internally motivated students do not need explicit connections between specific skills and practical problems. Such students may be motivated by desired to please authority figures, by long-range goals (e.g. attending a postsecondary school), or simply by knowing that they are achieving at high levels. In addition, interest in a subject kindled originally by a cooperative class project may spur students to learn everything they can about the field. Self-motivated students pursue skills they believe are related to their topics or provide foundations for later concepts. For such learners, the most desired method of learning is the most efficient one. Directed instruction for these students can frequently be supported by well-designed self-instructional tutorials and simulations-assuming the teacher can locate high-quality materials on the desired topics.

Assessment Strategies for Directed Models

It should not be surprising that traditional assessment methods are frequently used with directed integration strategies. Usually, this is because directed strategies are also mastery learning strategies, and teachers require clear, easily observable evidence that students have adequately mastered the skills.

. Measures of achievement in directed environments: Typical assessments for directed models are written objective tests (multiple choice, true-false, matching, short answer) and essays. Essays often are used to assess higher-level performances such as writing a composition.

. Grading strategies for directed products: For directed learning, measures are graded according to preset criteria for what constitutes acceptable performance. Very often, a software package includes tests and built-in criteria for passing them. Essays usually are graded with a criteria checklist or writing rubric.